The cause of these inequalities is complex and is likely to be the result of an interplay between deprivation, environmental, physiological, behavioural and cultural factors.

Socio-economic deprivation disproportionately impacts on ethnic minority groups and is driven by a wider social context in which structural racism and discrimination can reinforce inequalities among ethnic groups, for example in housing, employment and the criminal justice system. This in turn can have a negative impact on the mental and physical health of ethnic minority groups.

Access to primary care health services is generally equitable for ethnic minority groups, but this is less consistent across other health services. However, people from ethnic minority groups are more likely to report poorer experiences of using health services than those who identify as White.

Despite this life expectancy at birth, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic was higher among most ethnic minority groups compared to the white population. This illustrates the complexity of the picture and the importance of distinguishing between the inequalities experienced by different ethnic groups.

The Kings Fund, 2021